The 9 technologies companies will go nuts for In 2015.

 As 2014 draws to a close, it's time to examine the tech industry's trajectory and predict which trends will explode in the upcoming year.

Experts from market research firm Gartner, the IEEE Computer Society, MIT, and other sources have named the tech trends they thought were super hot for businesses in 2014 or are going to become hot in 2015.

We've sifted through that information, and have thrown in a few of our own picks to come up with this list of the nine technologies that companies will go nuts for in 2015.

1. 3D printing

Breakthroughs in 3D printing are coming in 2015, which will make this form of manufacturing attractive to nearly any business.

One such technology is something known "micro-scale 3D printing," according to MIT. This is where "inks" of different materials can be loaded into 3D printers, allowing them to print a huge range of objects.


 2. Wearable at work

In 2015, wearable computers will start to trickle into the workplace. Smartwatches will keep employees plugged in without constantly looking at their phones. Wearable health devices will encourage employees to participate in group wellness programmes.

Companies will also start experimenting with smart glasses with custom apps such as repair guides, video conferencing, training videos and the like.

HR software company Kronos and The Workforce Institute recently polled 9,000 people worldwide and found that 73% said they think wearables would be helpful at work.

3. Ultra-private devices

Computer security is entering a new phase. Passwords won't exactly die in 2015, but our devices will become more secure and private. More devices, including and beyond smartphones, will get fingerprint sensors.
 (A company called Nok Nok, for instance, offers technology that turns touchscreens and touch pads into fingerprint sensors.)

While hackers aren't going away, your work software will be wrapped in layers of security. So when a hacker breaks into one app, other apps will know it and guard themselves. The hacker will get limited info and won't get the data stored in other apps. "Every app needs to be self-aware and self-protecting," Gartner says.

4. Devops

IT departments used to work in phases. They wrote a new app on their test machines and only rolled it out to the real network when it was perfect, so it wouldn't crash things.

But IT departments want to be more like Facebook; they want to run experiments on their users by trying new features on their live networks and collect data on what those employees want. That lets them rapidly make changes.

This trend is called "Devops," which blends "development" and "operations" together. Devops requires IT departments to buy a lot of new technology and change the way they are organized so they can experiment without crashing things.

"More organizations will begin thinking, acting and building applications and infrastructure like web giants such as Amazon, Google and Facebook," writes Gartner. "The first step... should be Devops."

5. Software-defined data centers

Today, if a company wants to make a lot of changes to its network switches or storage devices after they are installed, it's a monumental task.

The new trend is to add a layer of software on top that controls everything. This allows them to easily make changes and shift things around.

New software-defined networks and storage, "deliver the flexibility required to make the digital business work," Gartner says.

6. Mobile identities

 

  Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella has given the word "mobility" a new definition. It no longer means taking a tablet or smartphone with you as you roam. It means that your identity lives in the cloud and travels with you from device to device, network to network.

Microsoft is one of many companies working on this idea. It will create a new generation of work apps that not only keeps track of your place, but lets your colleagues collaborate with you. Gartner calls this "context-aware" applications.

7. Smart data

Everyone's already got a lot of data, sometimes called big data. The emphasis in 2015 will stop being on the means to affordably collect and store that data (using technologies like Hadoop, noSQL databases) and will shift to making better use of it once they've got it.

Companies are really struggling today to get that data into the hands of the people who need it most: business managers. What managers want is to be able to ask that data a simple question: "Why did sales fall short of expectations last month?"

They want the data to reply with charts, graphs, details of things that didn't sell well and reasons for the shortfall: shipment delays, weather, quality control issues, personnel changes, and so on.

That's a huge focus for startups and established software companies alike. Gartner calls this "Advanced, Pervasive and Invisible Analytics."

8. Smart machines

The industry is right now arguing over what to call the next generation of internet-enabled devices: "Internet of Things," "Internet of Everything," or "Web of Things."

But it's not about the internet at all. It's about giving sensors and chips to everyday objects and suddenly making them smart. It's also about giving intelligence to the apps we already use to make them even smarter.

For instance, your work apps will learn your work style to show you the data you need to see at the time you need to see it.

A smarter object "takes advantage of mobile devices' and sensors' ability to observe and monitor their environments, increasing the coordination between things in the real world and their counterparts on the web," the IEEE explains.

9. Cloud computing

For the past few years, enterprises have been slowly shifting away from buying software and hardware. They want to rent it from someone else, hosted elsewhere, paying only for what they actually use. This is known as cloud computing.

By the end of 2014, this trend has turned from a trickle to a stream. In 2015 it will become a waterfall.

IDC predicts that in 2014, companies will have spent $56.6 billion on the cloud, and that the cloud market is growing 22% a year, six times faster than the growth of the whole IT industry. By 2018, companies will be spending $127 billion on the cloud.

Huyu ndiye dada aliyefunika ufaulu Chuo Kikuu Dar

Ni binti,apiga A=32,B+=6 katika masomo 38, Amesoma shule za kawaida za serikali

 Mhitimu bora wa Chuo Kikuu cha Dar es Salaam mwaka 2014, Doreen Kabuche (22), aliushangaza umma uliohudhuria maafali ya 44 ya chuo hicho baada ya kutangazwa kuwa kinara kwa ufaulu kwa kupata alama A 32 na B+ sita kati ya masomo 38 ya shahada ya Takwimu Bima (Actuarial Science).

Kwa alama hizo, Doreen alipata wastani wa alama za ufaulu (GPA) 4.8 na kuacha alama ya 0.2 ili kufikia kiwango cha juu kabisa cha ufaulu cha alama tano, hivyo kupata shahada ya kwanza daraja la kwanza.

Akizungumza na NIPASHE katika mahojiano maalum mwishoni mwa wiki, Doreen anayeishi Kigogo Mwisho, jijini Dar es Salaam alihitimu shahada hiyo akiwa miongoni mwa wanafunzi 28 wa darasa lake, lakini akihitimu sambamba na wanafunzi wengine 5,745, wanawake wakiwa ni 2,298 wa shahada ya kwanza.

Shahada hiyo inayotolewa katika Shule ya Sayansi ya Asili (CoNaS) chuoni hapo, ni miongoni mwa taaluma adimu nchini. Ilianza kufundishwa chuoni hapo mwaka 2011.
Miongoni mwa taasisi ambazo zitafurahia taaluma hiyo kuanza kupata wataalam nchini ni pamoja na mifuko ya hifadhi ya jamii ambayo hulipa fedha nyingi kupata huduma hiyo kwa wataalam kutoka nje ya nchi na kwa gharama kubwa.

Alipopewa nafasi ya kuzungumza mbele ya mamia ya wanafunzi wenzake na wageni waalikwa kwenye ukumbi wa Mlimani City, aliishia kutoa shukrani kwa wahadhiri, wanafunzi wenzake na wote waliomsaidia katika mafanikio yake kitaaluma.

Ili kupata wastani wa ufaulu wa daraja la kwanza kwa kiwango cha GPA ya 4.8, mhitimu hulazimika kufaulu kwa kiwango cha juu kwa miaka yote ya kuwa chuoni. Doreen alifanikiwa kutimiza sharti hilo baada ya kufaulu masomo 32 kwa kiwango cha ‘A’ na masomo mengine sita kufaulu kwa alama za B+ kati ya masomo yote 38 ya shahada yake; baadhi ya yale yaliyomkwamisha kupata A yakiwa ni ‘Actuarial Mathematics’ na ‘Legal Matters in Actuarial Industry’.

Mgawanyo wa ufaulu wake kwa mwaka wa kwanza ulikuwa ni A za masomo 12 na B+ za masomo mawili kati ya masomo 14; mwaka wa pili alifaulu kwa kupata A katika masomo 10 na B+ mbili kati ya masomo 12 na mwaka wa tatu alifaulu pia kwa kiwango cha alama A katika masomo 10 na masomo mengine mawili akapata B+ kati ya masomo 12.

ALIKOTOKA
Tofauti na fikra za wengi kuwa siku hizi wanafunzi bora hutoka katika shule zinazotoza ada kubwa na kutumia Kiingereza kama lugha kuu ya mawasiliano, maarufu kama English medium’, Doreen anathibitisha kuwa hilo halina ukweli.

Katika mahojiano na NIPASHE, alisema kuwa hajawahi kusoma katika shule hizo zinazotoza ada kubwa za mamilioni ya fedha na badala yake, alipitia katika shule za serikali kuanzia shule ya msingi mwaka 2004 hadi kidato cha sita mwaka 2011.

“Shule nilizosoma kabla ya chuo kikuu ni Mlimani (Shule ya Msingi) iliyopo Chuo Kikuu Dar es Salaam sehemu ya Mlimani, kidato cha kwanza hadi cha nne nilimaliza katika sekondari ya Forodhani na kidato cha tano na sita katika shule ya sekondari Benjamin Mkapa. Kote huko usafiri wangu siku zote ni wa daladala.

“Na kama unavyojua, ni kugombana na makondakta kila asubuhi wakati wa kupanda mabasi (daladala) kwenda shule na jioni wakati wa kurudi. Ila yote hayo tumeyazoea na hivyo adha za usafiri hazikuwa tatizo kubwa,” alisema Doreen na kuongeza:

“Juhudi, kujiamini na kuzingatia maelekezo ya walimu ni muhimu. Aina ya shule ni nyongeza tu kwa sababu siyo wote wanaosoma shule hizo za kitajiri wamekuwa wakifaulu. Wapo wanaofanya vizuri, na wapo wanaofeli pia... ni kama ilivyo kwenye hizi shule zetu (shule za serikali).”

KINARA KIDATO CHA SITA
Mafanikio ya sasa ya Doreen hayakuja kwa bahati mbaya. Historia yake inaonyesha kuwa kila hatua aliyopita alikuwa akifanya vizuri. Katika matokeo yake ya kidato cha nne mwaka 2008, Doreen alifaulu kwa kiwango cha daraja la kwanza akipata pointi tisa na kuchaguliwa kuendelea kidato cha tano katika Shule ya Sekondari Benjamin William Mkapa baada ya kuchagua mchepuo wa Uchumi, Hisabati na Jiografia (EGM).

Doreen aliendeleza makali yake katika mitihani yake ya kidato cha sita baada ya kufaulu kwa kiwango cha daraja la kwanza kwa pointi nne na kuwa kinara wa mchepuo wa EGM Tanzania.

Kwa matokeo hayo, akapata nafasi ya kuwa miongoni mwa wanafunzi bora Tanzania walioitwa bungeni mwaka 2011 na kutambulishwa na Waziri Mkuu, Mizengo Pinda, mbele ya wabunge wa Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania na kushangiliwa na wote waliokuwamo ukumbini.

“Hapo shauku yangu ya kutaka kuongeza juhudi zaidi na kufanikiwa kama akina Migiro (Asha-Rose), akina Tibaijuka (Profesa Anna) na akina Spika Anne Makinda ikaongezeka. Nikapania kufanya vizuri hadi chuoni na sasa namshukuru Mungu kuwa hatua hiyo pia nimeivuka salama na kufanikiwa,” alisema Doreen.

Pamoja na mafanikio yake kuanzia kidato cha kwanza hadi cha sita, Doreen alisema kuwa hajawahi kujihusisha sana na masomo ya ziada maarufu kwa jina la tuition na badala yake, alitumia muda mwingi kujisomea, kujadiliana na wanafunzi wenzake na mara kadhaa kusaidiwa masomo nyumbani na mjomba wake Charles Mayalla wa Taasisi ya Teknolojia Dar es Salaam (DIT).

Doreen alitangazwa kuongoza kwa ufaulu Chuo Kikuu Dar es Salaam ikiwa ni siku chache tu baada ya msichana mwingine aitwaye Rachel Kiunsi wa Shule ya Msingi Kimara 'B' jijini Dar es Salaam kuwa kinara wa somo la Hisabati Tanzania baada ya kupata alama zote za somo hilo katika mithani ya taifa ya darasa la saba.

MATARAJIO
Baada ya kumaliza shahada ya kwanza, matarajio ya sasa ya Doreen ni kuendelea na masomo ya shahada ya uzamili (masters) ambayo hata hivyo, anasema mchakato wake (kwa masomo ya Actuarial Science) ni ghali kwani kabla ya kujiunga anatakiwa kufanya mitihani kadhaa kabla ya kuanza shahada hiyo.

“Gharama za mithani hii ni kubwa. Kuna mitihani ya hatua nyingi hadi kupata nafasi ya kuanza kusomea masters na gharama zake kwa ujumla hufikia hadi Sh. milioni 10. Hizi ni gharama kubwa. Ila kwa sasa sijakaa bure.

Wazazi wangu bado wananiunga mkono na mwenyewe pia nimejifunza kuwa mpambanaji tangu wakati nikigombana na makonda ili kupanda daladala na kuwahi shule,” alisema Doreen.

“Na hata sasa nimeshaanza mapambano ili kujiendeleza zaidi. Nimepata kazi na fedha ninazopata nitaendelea kuzidunduliza kila mwezi ili nitimize ndoto zangu. Hata kama nitalazimika kusubiri kwa mwaka na zaidi, nitasubiri na mwishowe naamini kuwa Mungu ataniwezesha na kufanikisha malengo,” alisema Doreen.

“Najua hata hawa kina (Prof.) Tibaijuka, Migiro na wengine hawakufika walipo sasa kirahisi. Walipambana, na mimi pia ninapambana ili siku moja kufikia level zao,” alisema Doreen.

WAZAZI, FAMILIA
Akiwaelezea wazazi wake, Doreen alisema kuwa baba yake (Kabuche) aliwahi kuwa mfanyakazi wa benki kabla ya kuacha na kuwa mjasiriamali ambaye hivi sasa yuko Mtwara. Mama yake aitwaye Janeth Kabuche pia ni mjasiriamali.

Doreen alisema anawashukuru sana wazazi wake kwani mara zote wamekuwa wakimsaidia kwa kila hali ili kutimiza malengo yake katika elimu.  Alisimulia kuwa hata alipotia fora kwa kutwaa zawadi za masomo yote wakati wa mahafali ya kidato cha sita shuleni kwao Benjamin Mkapa mwaka 2011, wazazi wake walimtia moyo kwa kumnunulia kompyuta mpakato (laptop) aina ya Dell.

“Kwetu nimezaliwa peke yangu. Nikishatulia na kuanza maisha yangu binafsi baada ya kumaliza mambo ya masomo nitapenda kuwa na watoto wengi ili kuongeza ukubwa wa familia... walau wafikie watoto saba hivi.”

DINI, MUZIKI, FILAMU
Licha ya kufanya vizuri katika masomo, Doreen huwa haachi kujihusisha na masuala mengine ya kijamii.

“Kila Jumapili huwa sikosi kwenda kwenye ibada katika kanisa letu la Kigogo Luhanga. Vilevile mimi ni mpenzi wa muziki kama wa bendi ya Wazee wa Ngwasuma (FM Academia), bongofleva na filamu pia huwa ninazitama... (filamu) ninayoipenda inaitwa Think Like a Man, Act Like a Woman,” alisema Doreen.

RATIBA AKIWA CHUONI
Doreen alisema kuwa wakati wote akiwa chuoni alizingatia ratiba kuu aliyojiwekea kila uchao, ambayo ni kwenda darasani bila kukosa kipindi chochote na baada ya hapo alikuwa hakosi majadiliano na wanafunzi wenzake kama Catherine John na Shamim Nuah.

“Sikuwahi ku-dodge (kukacha) kipindi, sikuwahi pia kukosa discussion na wenzangu bila sababu ya maana. Na siku moja moja za mwisho wa wiki tulikuwa tukienda ku-refresh mind na wenzangu, hasa maeneo ya viwanja vya Sinza na siku nyingine Mlimani City. Ila kila Jumapili ni lazima kwenda kanisani pale chuo au kanisa la nyumbani kwetu Kigogo Luhanga,” alisema Doreen.

Doreen ana ndoto za akufuata nyayo za kina  Prof. Anna Tibaijuka, Dk. Asha-Rose Migiro na Anne Makinda kwa kuwa ni miongoni mwa wanawake waliofanikiwa katika medani za taaluma, uongozi na siasa.

Matokeo ya darasa la saba

 Matokeo ya darasa la saba

 bonyeza link hapo chini kuangalia..

Matokeo ya darasa la saba yatoka Mwanza yafanya vizuri

Matokeo ya UEFA

Welbeck  apiga hat-trick kaiweka pahali pazuri  Arsenal  

    Arsenal waipiga kichapo kibaya Galatasaray 4-1Danny Welbeck alifunga ya kwanza ya kikazi hat-trick yake kama 10-mtu Arsenal alipuuzilia mbali Galatasaray katika Ligi ya Mabingwa.

Mshambuliaji wa England, bora katika, stabbed katika nusu ya kwanza kopo kabla ya upande-cheo pili.
vyombo vya habari Play
Vyombo vya habari mchezaji Rukia
Vyombo vya habari mchezaji msaada
Kati ya vyombo vya habari mchezaji. Waandishi wa habari kuingia kurudi au tab kuendelea.

'Electric' Welbeck amtakaye Wenger

Alexis Sanchez kisha curled nyumbani kabla ya Welbeck clipped katika tatu yake.

Burak Yilmaz alifunga penalti baada ya Arsenal Wojciech Szczesny kipa alitolewa kwa mchafu, lakini ilikuwa ni kitu zaidi kuliko faraja.

Kushinda mara ya kwanza katika Arsenal Ligi ya Mabingwa mwaka huu na ina maana kuwa pointi tatu kutoka mbili Group D michezo.

Pia ilikuwa ni njia kamili kwa ajili ya meneja Arsene Wenger na alama ya miaka 18 kwa siku tangu aliteuliwa Arsenal bosi, na Mfaransa hakika anastahili mikopo kwa ajili ya kumtaja upande mashambulizi-nia.

Pamoja na Welbeck kucheza katika Maria jukumu lake kuu na wa zamani Manchester United mshambuliaji ably mkono na kasi na ubunifu wa Sanchez, Mesut Ozil na Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, Gunners tu alikuwa sana kwa upande Galatasaray ambao sasa ameshindwa katika 10 ziara ya pande Kiingereza.

Matokeo mengine ya UEFA Champions League

  UEFA Champions League

Match score	Match link
Atl Madrid 1 - 0 Juventus Result	Report
Malmö FF 2 - 0 Olympiakos Result	Report
FC Basel 1 - 0 Liverpool Result	Report
Ludo Razgd 1 - 2 Real Madrid Result	Report
Zenit St P 0 - 0 Monaco Result	Report
Bayer Levkn 3 - 1 Benfica Result	Report
Arsenal 4 - 1 Galatasaray Result	Report
Anderlecht 0 - 3 Bor Dortmd Result

View all Champions League fixtures | View all Champions League results
View all Football fixtures | View all Football results

  uefa ranking

		Clubs		Pts
1		Real Madrid	ESP	145.828
2		Barcelona	ESP	133.828
3		Bayern	GER	130.483
4		Chelsea	ENG	124.164
5		Benfica	POR	113.109
6		Man. United	ENG	101.164
7		Atlético	ESP	99.828
8		Schalke	GER	97.483
9		Valencia	ESP	96.828
10		Arsenal	ENG	92.164

Last updated: 19/09/2014 08:31 CET

Full standings

  

 

 

Orodha ya majina ya waliochaguliwa kujiunga na vyuo vikuu

Bofya jina la chuo kupakua faili lenye orodha ya majina ya waliochaguliwa

Bofya jina la chuo kupakua faili lenye orodha ya majina ya waliochaguliwa

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2. BUGANDO MD.pdf (106.2 KB)
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Man utd amepigwa na Leicester 5-3

 Louis van Gaal anasema Manchester United akatupa mbali kushinda katika Leicester.
Manchester United meneja Louis van Gaal alisema timu yake akatupa mbali ushindi kama Leicester akarudi kutoka nakisi ya mbili lengo kupata ajabu kushinda 5-3.

 

United walikuwa 3-1 mbele na dakika 30 iliyobaki kabla ya utata David Nugent adhabu umesababisha comeback.

Van Gaal alisema: "Ni si nzuri kwa sababu tulikuwa na mchezo katika mfuko wetu na akampa mbali Si kwa sababu ya Leicester, sisi alitoa mbali na mimi si kama hiyo..

"Tuna wachezaji wengi ambao wanataka kutafuta kwa lengo hilo."

Dutchman alikataa kukosoa mwamuzi Mark Clattenburg kwa si ​​kutoa adhabu kwa Jamie Vardy kwa majahazi juu ya Rafael tu nje wakati sanduku kabla ya beki wa Brazil amekubali adhabu ambayo Nugent kubadilishwa.

"Ili hukumu ya kwanza daima ni mwamuzi [ambao wewe majadiliano juu ya] lakini huna kufanya hivyo kama mchezaji," aliongeza 63 mwenye umri wa miaka.

"Unajua wewe ni katika eneo la penalti na kumruhusu mwamuzi kwa filimbi kama wewe kufanya ni changamoto. Sijui kama ni adhabu lakini sisi kuwa na kuangalia wenyewe kwa sababu sisi alifanya makosa makubwa kama timu."

Ndani ya dakika mbili za Leicester bao Esteban Cambiasso yao ya pili alikuwa aliisawazishia majeshi na, katika dakika ya mwisho 10, Jamie Vardy kuweka Mbweha mbele kabla ya adhabu Leonardo ULLOA alifanya na uhakika wa ushindi.

"Sisi hawakuridhika na milki ya mpira katika njia ya haki," alisema Van Gaal. "Leicester tayari ilionyesha dhidi ya Arsenal na Stoke kwamba wanaweza kuja nyuma na walifanya hivyo vizuri sana.

"Leicester alikuwa shots tano juu ya lengo, na kwamba alikuwa ni. Malengo haya tano walikuwa zilizopo kwa sababu sisi alifanya makosa katika milki ya mpira.

"Sisi umba mengi ya nafasi na alifanya malengo superb lakini una kufanya kwamba zaidi ya dakika 90, dakika 60 si. Ilikuwa si ​​ya kutosha. Una kuua mchezo na sisi hakufanya hivyo."



Kocha wa zamani wa Barcelona na Bayern Munich alikataa lawama utetezi wake kwa kushindwa na badala yake kuweka wajibu juu ya timu.

"Huwezi kusema ulinzi alikuwa dhaifu," alisema. "Wewe kucheza kama timu, Leicester ilionyesha kuwa. Sisi hakuwa na kucheza kama timu katika nusu ya pili na kwamba si tu ulinzi. Katika hali ya kujihami timu nzima ni wajibu, si tu beki moja."

Lakini Van Gaal haja ya haraka kushughulikia masuala ya kujihami timu yake kwa Premier League Jumamosi ijayo ya mechi dhidi ya West Ham kama yeye ni uwezekano wa kuwa na bila kusimamishwa Tyler Blackett na kujeruhiwa Jonny Evans.

Blackett alitolewa kwa mchafu juu ya Vardy, ambayo imesababisha ULLOA wa marehemu doa-kick, na itakuwa suspended juu ya Jumamosi, wakati Van Gaal lazima wakisubiri matokeo ya Scan juu ya Evans baada ya kituo cha-nyuma alilazimika kutoka uwanja katika dakika 30 na kushoto uwanja magongo.

"Mimi sijui jinsi mbaya ni," alisema Van Gaal ya kuumia Evans ya. "Sisi kuona kesho [Jumatatu], yeye pengine Scan."

DATA ENCAPSULATION & DECAPSULATION IN THE OSI MODEL

 One important piece of information to keep in mind is that data flows 2 ways in the OSI model, DOWN (data encapsulation) and UP (data decapsulation).

DATA ENCAPSULATION

 

Explanation:

The computer in the above picture needs to send some data to another computer. The Application layer is where the user interface exists, here the user interacts with the application he or she is using, then this data is passed to the Presentation layer and then to the Session layer. These three layer add some extra information to the original data that came from the user and then passes it to the Transport layer. Here the data is broken into smaller pieces (one piece at a time transmitted) and the TCP header is a added. At this point, the data at the Transport layer is called a segment.

Each segment is sequenced so the data stream can be put back together on the receiving side exactly as transmitted. Each segment is then handed to the Network layer for network addressing (logical addressing) and routing through the internet network. At the Network layer, we call the data (which includes at this point the transport header and the upper layer information) a packet.

The Network layer add its IP header and then sends it off to the Datalink layer. Here we call the data (which includes the Network layer header, Transport layer header and upper layer information) a frame. The Datalink layer is responsible for taking packets from the Network layer and placing them on the network medium (cable). The Datalink layer encapsulates each packet in a frame which contains the hardware address (MAC) of the source and destination computer (host) and the LLC information which identifies to which protocol in the prevoius layer (Network layer) the packet should be passed when it arrives to its destination. Also, at the end, you will notice the FCS field which is the Frame Check Sequence. This is used for error checking and is also added at the end by the Datalink layer.

If the destination computer is on a remote network, then the frame is sent to the router or gateway to be routed to the desination. To put this frame on the network, it must be put into a digital signal. Since a frame is really a logical group of 1's and 0's, the Physical layer is responsible for encapsulating these digits into a digital signal which is read by devices on the same local network.

There are also a few 1's and 0's put at the begining of the frame, only so the receiving end can synchronize with the digital signal it will be receiving.

Below is a picture of what happens when the data is received at the destination computer.

DATA DECAPSULATION

 

 

 Explanation

The receiving computer will firstly synchronize with the digital signal by reading the few extra 1's and 0's as mentioned above. Once the synchonization is complete and it receives the whole frame and passes it to the layer above it which is the Datalink layer.

The Datalink layer will do a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) on the frame. This is a computation which the comupter does and if the result it gets matches the value in the FCS field, then it assumes that the frame has been received without any errors. Once that's out of the way, the Datalink layer will strip off any information or header which was put on by the remote system's Datalink layer and pass the rest (now we are moving from the Datalink layer to the Network layer, so we call the data a packet) to the above layer which is the Network layer.

At the Network layer the IP address is checked and if it matches (with the machine's own IP address) then the Network layer header, or IP header if you like, is stripped off from the packet and the rest is passed to the above layer which is the Transport layer. Here the rest of the data is now called a segment.

The segment is processed at the Transport layer, which rebuilds the data stream (at this level on the sender's computer it was actually split into pieces so they can be transferred) and acknowledges to the transmitting computer that it received each piece. It is obvious that since we are sending an ACK back to the sender from this layer that we are using TCP and not UDP. Please refer to the Protocols section for more clarification. After all that, it then happily hands the data stream to the upper-layer application.

You will find that when analysing the way data travels from one computer to another most people never analyse in detail any layers above the Transport layer. This is because the whole process of getting data from one computer to another involves usually layers 1 to 4 (Physical to Transport) or layer 5 (Session) at the most, depending on the type of data.

Albert Einstein

Biography of albert einstein

Albert Einstein's Biography

Early life and education

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg
in the German Empire on 14 March 1879.His father was Hermann Einstein,
a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch).
In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle
founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that
manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.
Marriages and children
Einstein and Maric married in January 1903. In May 1904,
the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein,
was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was
born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914,Einstein moved to Berlin,
while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons.They divorced
on 14 February 1919,having lived apart for five years.Einstein
married Elsa Löwenthal on 2 June 1919, after having had a
relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin
maternallyand his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they
emigrated to the United States. In 1935,Elsa Einstein was
diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936
Scientific career

• Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
• General principles
• Theory of relativity and E = mc²
• Photons and energy quanta
• Quantized atomic vibrations
• Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables
• Wave–particle duality
• Theory of critical opalescence
• Zero-point energy
• General relativity and the equivalence principle
• Modern quantum theory
• Bose–Einstein statistics
• Energy momentum pseudotensor
• Unified field theory
• Einstein–Cartan theory
• Equations of motion
• Cosmology

E=mc² Awards and honors Einstein received numerous awards and honors, including the Nobel Prize in Physics




Born: 14 March 1879, Ulm, Germany
Died: 18 April 1955, Princeton, NJ, USA